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Grammar

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs - 1

What are adjectives?
Adjectives are words that tell us something about a noun, pronoun, impression or situation.

What do adjectives modify?
Adjectives can modify nouns or pronouns/names.

person thing
Mandy is a careful girl This is a nice car
Mandy is careful The car is nice
She is careful It is nice


Where do adjectives go?
An adjective can be put before the noun. Then it is an attribute.

person thing
Mandy is a careful girl This is a nice car

 

An adjective can be put after the verb to be (is).
Then it is part of the predicate.

person thing
The girl is careful This car is nice


Adjectives can also put after the following verbs: 
to + appear, become, feel, get, go, keep, turn, look, like, smell, sound, taste and other verbs of experience.

Examples: 

  • The steak smells fantastic
  • She turned red
  • He got excited
  • It tastes awful

 

Adjectives and adverbs - 2

What are adverbs?
Adverbs tell us in what way someone does something.
Adverbs can modify verbs (here: drive), adjectives or other adverbs.

adjective adverb
Mandy is a careful girl Mandy drives carefully
She is very careful She drives carefully

 

Explanation:
Mandy is a careful driver.
This sentence is about Mandy, the driver, so use the adjective.

Mandy drives carefully.
This sentence is about her way of driving, so use the adverb

Form of the adverb: adjective + -ly

adjective adverb
dangerous dangerously
careful carefully
nice nicely
horrible horribly
easy easily
electronic electronically

Adverbs formed from adjectives ending -y, pronounced like Dutch 'ie'
If the adjective ends in -y, change the final -y to -i. Then add -ly:
happy - happily
but:
shy – shyly (the 'y' in 'shy' does not sound like Dutch 'ie'.)

Adjectives and adverbs - 3

Adverbs formed from adjectives ending in -le
If the adjective ends in -le, drop the -e, and replace it with -y:
terrible – terribly

Adverbs formed from adjectives ending in -e
If the adjective ends in -e, then add -ly:
safe - safely

Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs:

  • adjectives, ending in -ly: friendly, silly, lonely, ugly
  • nouns, ending in -ly: ally, bully, Italy, melancholy
  • verbs, ending in -ly: apply, rely, supply

There is no separate adverb for an adjective already ending in -ly.

Irregular forms
There are some irregular forms, where the adverb has a stem that differs from the adjective. Other irregular forms show no difference between the adjective and the adverb.

adjective adverb
good well
fast fast
hard hard

Adverbs position

Adverb position - 1

When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause:

FRONT before subject NOW I will read a book
MID between subject + verb I often read books.
END after verb/object I read books carefully.

 

When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example:

  adverb adjective  
She gave him a really dirty look.
  adverb adverb  
We quite often study English.

Adverb position - 2

The position of an adverb often depends on the kind of adverb (manner, place, time, degree).
The table gives you some guidelines for placement based on the kind of adverb.

kind of adverb mainly modifies   adverb usual position
manner verbs She spoke gently. END
place verbs He lived here. END
time
(definite)		 verbs I'll do it today. END
time
(frequency)		   We often go to Paris. MID
    I nearly died. MID
degree verbs
(adj.)		 It was terribly funny. before adj.
  verbs
(adv.)		 He works really fast. before adv.


Warning: these are guidelines only, and not complete...

Comparatives and superlatives of adverbs

Comparatives and superlatives of adverbs

The following guidelines apply to the comparative/superlative of most adverbs:

Adverbs of one syllable:

  1. Syllable adverbs: add -er/-est

I can run faster than you. / I can run the fastest in my class.
She works harder than me. / She works the hardest of all students.

  1. Other adverbs: use more / the most

She ran more quickly than me. / Of all the students she ran the most quickly.

Informal forms of adverbs
In informal English it is common to hear the adjectival comparative/superlative form of two-syllable adverbs. For example with quickly: 

She ran quicker than me.
She ran the quickest. (instead of more quickly – the most quickly)

Formal forms of of the pronouns with comparisons
Many educated English speakers prefer to use the subject form of Pronouns plus a verb rather than the object form without a verb in comparative sentences, especially in formal situations.
They say, for example: She ran more quickly than I did.
The alternative, omitting the verb as in the following examples, is considered to be even more formal and is avoided by most British English speakers: She ran more quickly than I.

Comparatives of adjectives

Comparatives of adjectives - 1

Comparative is the name for the grammar used when comparing two things.

The two basic ways to compare are using as ... as or than. 
She's twice as old as her sister.
I'm almost as good in maths as in science.
Russian is not quite as difficult as Chinese.

It's much colder today than it was yesterday.
This grammar topic is easier than most others.
I find science more difficult than mathematics. 

Comparisons with as ... as versus comparisons with than:
When comparing with as ... as, the adjective does not change.
When comparing with than, however, some changes are necessary.

Comparatives of adjectives - 2

Comparing with than depends on the number of syllables the adjective has:

Adjectives of one syllable:
1. syllable adjectives: add -er to the adjective

My sister is much taller than me.
It's colder today than it was yesterday. 

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually doubled in the comparative.
big - bigger, fat - fatter, hot - hotter

Adjectives of two syllables ending in -y:
2. syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -ier

She's looking happier today.
This grammar topic is easier than the last one.
Why is everyone else luckier than me? 

Comparatives of adjectives - 3

Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs.
2-syllable adverbs ending in -y must be compared with the word more.

I drive more quickly (quicklier) than my brother.

Other adjectives with two syllables:
Other 2-syllable adjectives: use more with the unchanged adjective

The shops are always more crowded just before Christmas.
Is there anything more boring than reading about grammar?
My sister is more careful with her writing than I am with mine.

Exceptions to this rule
The comparative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -er.

  • simple - simpler
  • clever - cleverer
  • narrow - narrower

To be sure which comparative method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Comparatives of adjectives - 4

Adjectives with three syllables or more:
Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use more with the unchanged adjective

Russian grammar is more difficult than English grammar.
My sister is much more intelligent than me.
I find maths lessons more enjoyable than science lessons.

Formal forms of the pronouns after comparisons:
Many educated English speakers prefer to use the Subject form of Pronouns plus a verb rather than the Object form without a Verb in comparative sentences, especially in formal situations.
They say, for example, My sister is taller than I am.
The alternative, omitting the verb as in the following examples, is considered to be even more formal and is avoided by most British English speakers: My sister is taller than I.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions - 1

There are three types of conjunctions:

  • Coordinating conjunctions
  • Correlative conjunctions
  • Subordinating conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions and, but, or, nor
Correlative Conjunctions
 		 either ...or, neither ...nor, not only ... but also,
both ...and, whether ...or
Common Subordinating Conjunctions

 		 after, before, although, though, even though, as much as, as long as, as soon as, because, since, so that, in order that, so, if, lest, even if, that, unless, until, when, where, whether, while


Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that connect two or more equal items.

Examples:

  • He plays tennis and soccer
  • He works quickly but accurately
  • You'd better do your homework, or you'll get a terrible grade.

Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs. They work in pairs to coordinate two items.
Examples of correlative conjunctions include: both...and..., either...or, not only... but also...

Examples Correlative conjunctions:

  • I didn't know that she can neither read nor write.
  • You can either walk to school or take the bus.
  • Both Sara and James are invited to the party.
  • Whether you watch TV or do your homework is your decision.
  • Not only are they noisy but they are also lazy.

Conjunctions - 2

Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions
that join a dependent (or subordinating) clause to an independent (or main) clause.

Examples:

  • He reads the newspapers after he finishes work.
  • Even if you get the best grade in the writing test, you'll need to pass an oral test.
  • Although he is very old, he goes jogging every morning.
  • She didn't go to school because she was ill.
  • They went to bed since it was late.
  • As soon as the teacher had arrived, they started work.

Extra examples of the usage of conjunctions:

Conjunction Example sentence
as if Aunt Alexandra was sitting in a rocking-chair exactly as if she had sat there every day of her life.
as long as I will take my chances as long as you love me.
as soon as As soon as you stop wanting something you get it.
though Though it is not an ox, it has horns;
  though it is not an ass, it has a pack-saddle;
  and wherever it goes it leaves silver behind. What is it?*
till Just you wait, Henry Higgins, till you're sick.
because She goes to the tennis club because she likes to play tennis.
but He reads magazines but he doesn't like to read books.
how Do you know how he's doing?

* a snail

 

Conjunctions - 3

                                                
ConjunctionExample sentence
what Did he ever tell what programme he likes best?
if If you were older, you could go to the party.
  I don't know if I really love her.
whether We should find out whether the museum is open (or not).
when When you are older, you can go to the party.
while I stayed up while you were sleeping.
or Shall I stay or shall I go?
since Since he's lost his money, he couldn't go to the restaurant.
so I didn't know just what to do, so I whispered: "I love you."
so that She put her hands behind her back and leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward.
unless Her baby cannot fall asleep unless she stays in the room.
what I don't know what you mean.
when When you're in London, write an e-mail to me.
  When you were in Birmingham, you never did.
after He stopped being nice to her after she told him that she was married.
before Before she told him about her marriage, he was very gallant.
whether I'm going home whether you like it or not.
until They can talk until hell freezes over.
for She left work early, for she was feeling a bit under the weather.

Double negatives

Double negatives

Double negatives - the use of two 'no' words such as not and nowhere in one sentence -
are incorrect in standard English.
In many dialects and vernaculars, they are quite frequent.

Vernaculars (ways of speaking to indicate you belong to a particular group) are quite tricky.
It is relatively simple to learn to use 'wrong' double negatives.

Yet there are many other unwritten rules. If you make a mistake, you are 'out' immediately.
It's like your teach trying to speak like a 16 year old.
When modifying something use either a 'no' word, or 'any' as explained in the following sections.

Examples:

He doesn't like anything. or Angela hasn't visited anyone this month.
Angela hasn't visited anyone this month. or   Angela has visited no one this month.
She isn't going to travel anywhere. or She's going to travel nowhere.

Future tens

Future tense - 1

future with will - form
The simple future tense is very easy to make and is very useful.
In spoken English, emails and personal letters, more often than not 'll is used.
However, in business and other formal texts, the full form will is used. 

Here's the positive form (will + infinitive):

  • I will meet him later (I'll ..) 
  • You will come (you'll ..)
  • It will rain tomorrow (it'll ..)
  • She will be late (she'll ..)
  • He will help us later (he'll ..)
  • We will get married in September (we'll ..)
  • They will cook dinner (they'll ..)

Next, here's the negative form (add: not).
In spoken English, emails and personal letters, more often than not won't is used.
However, in business and juridical texts, the full form will not is used.

Here's the negative form (not):

  • I will not go (I won't ..)
  • You will not be late (you won't ..)
  • It will not snow tomorrow (it won't ..)
  • She will not get the job (she won't ..)
  • He will not pass the exam (he won't ..)
  • We will not come (we won't ..)
  • They will not stop (they won't ..)

Here's the question form:

yes / no questions:
  • Will I go?
  • Will you come early?
  • Will it be cold?
  • Will she dance?
  • Will he arrive soon?
  • Will we cook?
  • Will they leave?
 wh questions:
  • Where will I go?
  • Why will you come early?
  • When will it be cold?
  • Who will she dance with?
  • What time will he arrive?
  • What will we cook?
  • When will they leave?

Future tense - 2

future with will - use
We use the simple future for:
1. A decision at the moment of speaking (a spontaneous action):
I'm cold.
I'll close the window.

2. Prediction based on opinion:
I think the Conservatives will win the next election.

3. A future fact:
The sun will rise at 7am.

4. Promises / requests / refusal / willingness:
I'll help you with your homework.
Will you give me a hand?
I will give up smoking!

Shall is used mainly in the forms shall I? and shall we? in British English.
These forms are used when you want to get someone's opinion, especially for offers and suggestions:

  • Shall I open the window? (= do you want me to open the window).
  • Where shall we go tonight? (= what's your opinion?).

We use be going to + infinitive for:
1. Future plans made before the moment of speaking:
We've run out of milk.
I know, I'm going to buy some.

2. Prediction based on present evidence:
Look at those boys playing football! They're going to break the window.

Modals of ability, possibility and permission

Modals of ability, possibility and permission - 1

Introduction
These five verbs are examples of modal verbs:

  • can
  • could
  • be able to
  • may
  • might

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ideas like ability, permission, possibility, and necessity.
Many modal verbs have more than one meaning.
They are always followed by the simple form of a verb (infinitive).

Example: Alan can swim well.
(This shows that Alan has the ability to swim.)

Modals of ability, possibility and permission - 2

Modals of Ability
Let’s start with expressing ability! We use can, be able to and could to show that someone has (or doesn’t have) an ability to do something. Look at these examples:

Present/Future
Ability		 Negative
 		 Past Ability
 		 Negative
 
Alan can swim well. Jackie cannot play piano. Paul could speak Chinese when he was a child. Mary couldn’t finish her homework last night.
I can meet you after school. We can’t visit Vancouver this weekend. Last night, there were no clouds in the sky and they could see all the stars. You couldn’t find the website this morning, could you?
I am able to speak two languages. I am not able to speak Arabic. After three weeks in an Italian restaurant, I was able to bake a decent pizza. I wasn’t able to finish my test yesterday.


Did you notice that the verbs after “can/could/be able to” are always in the simple form?
For example: Alan can swim well (subject + auxiliary verb + simple verb + ...) 
Do NOT change the modal auxiliary OR the main verb for he/she/it subjects.
In addition, do NOT add “ing” or “ed”.

  • Alan can to swim well ➨ wrong! 
  • Alan can swims well ➨ wrong!
  • Alan can swimming well ➨ wrong!

How can we make questions about ability? It’s easy!

  • Modal auxiliary + subject + main verb + ... ?
    Can she play guitar?
    Could you speak English when you were a child?
     
  • BE + subject + able to + main verb + ... ?
    Are you able to understand the homework?
    Was he able to pass the exam?

Note: We do not need the verbs “do/does/did” when we make questions!
The modal verb “be able to” includes the word “to”; the “to” is not an infinitive.

 

Modals of ability, possibility and permission - 3

Modals of Possibility 
Let’s learn about expressing possibility now.
The verbs may, might and could show possibility now and in the future.
In this case, they have the same meaning. Look at this conversation:

A: My mother said that it may snow tomorrow.
B: Really? It might snow?! That’s great! I could make a snowman or go for a “snow” walk.
A: Don’t get too excited. If the temperature is high, it may not snow. It may rain.
B: Well, I guess I could still go for a walk in the rain.

Be careful with may + “be” and “maybe”. Compare these sentences. Both are correct.
Ann is not here today. She may be sick. ➨ “may be” is a modal.
Ann is not here today. Maybe she is sick. ➨ “Maybe” is an adverb.

Note: 'may' only occurs in the simple form (it does not take an 's' with 'he', 'she' and 'it').
'May', 'might' and 'could' never take 'to'.

Modals of ability, possibility and permission - 4

Modals of Permission
Finally, let’s look at ways to ask for and give permission.
We use may, could and can to do this.

Formality Example
medium formal Could I borrow your dictionary?
Could he pay you tomorrow?
casual Can I call you back later?
Can she have a cookie?


Now, look at the (main) verbs that come after the subject.
They are always in the simple form, just as with other modal verbs.
Again, the most polite/formal way to answer these questions is with “may.”

Examples:

May I go to the washroom?
 		 Yes, you may (go to the washroom)
Yes, you can		 No, you may not
No, you cannot
Can she have a cookie? Yes, she can No, she can’t


Notice that we do not “contract” may + not = mayn’t. ➨ Wrong!
Can’t and couldn’t are common contractions, however.

Modals of advice

Modals of advice - 1

Introduction
These three verbs are modal verbs:

  • should
  • ought to
  • had better

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ideas like ability, advice and obligation.
Many modal verbs have more than one meaning.
They are always followed by the simple form of a verb (infinitive). 

Example: Amanda should go to the doctor
(This shows that we think it is a good idea for Amanda to visit the doctor.)

Modals of advice - 2

Modals of Advice 
Let's learn how to give advice!
English speakers use the modal verbs “should,” “ought to” and “had better” to express that they think something is a good (or a bad) idea. “Should” is the most common way to give advice. Look at these examples:

Affirmative Negative Question
A: I failed my test.
B: Really? You should studyharder.		 Young children shouldn't watch violent TV shows. I have a problem. Should I call my parents or my friend?
A: It's really cold outside.
B: You ought to wear a warm jacket.		 (“ought to” is not usually used in the negative form) (“ought to” is not common in question form)
A: You had better slow down. You are driving too fast!
 		 You had better not forget to pay your tuition. If you do, the university will kick you out! (“had better” is not usually used in question form)
 


These examples have the same basic advice message, but “had better” is a bit stronger.
It includes the idea of a warning: something bad will happen if you do not follow my advice.

For example:
You had better not forget to pay your tuition. (If you forget, the university will kick you out.)
You had better do your homework. (If you do not do your homework, the teacher will give you a low mark.)

Note: You had better...” can be contracted to become “You'd better....” 
This is correct grammar, and very common in speaking.
Some native speakers say, “You better ...,” but this is incorrect.
The “had” is necessary in good grammar. 
In the above examples, you can see that the modals are followed by the simple form of a verb in these patterns.

Modals of advice - 3

  • Subject + modal + basic verb + ... ➨ You should study harder
    You should to study harder. ➨ Wrong!
    You had better slowing down. ➨ Wrong!
    She ought to to drink more water. ➨ Wrong!

Remember that “ought to” is a modal verb and is followed by a simple verb.
The “to” is not an infinitive “to.”

Modal auxiliary + subject + main verb + ... ? ➨ Should I call my parents or my friend?
WH- (information) questions can also be formed by putting the WH-question word immediately before the modal.

For example:
What should I do about my problem?
Where should we have dinner tonight?
Why should you believe them?
When should they call their boss?

Modals of necessity

Modals of necessity - 1

These three verbs are modal verbs:

  • must
  • have got to
  • have to

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ideas like ability, necessity and prohibition.
Many modal verbs have more than one meaning.
They are always followed by the simple form of a verb (infinitive).

Example: Andrew has to pay his rent every month.
(This shows that Andrew has no choice. He has an obligation to pay his rent. He will be in trouble if he does not pay his rent.)

Let's read about how to express necessity or obligation. The modal verbs “must,” “have to” and “have got to” show that something is not optional; it is necessary.

  • Must is the strongest and most serious modal verb of the three and is most common in writing.
    It is unusual to use “must” in questions.
    Example: I must study tonight.
  • Have got to is most common in informal speech. It is not used in questions.
    Example: I have got to study tonight. = I must study tonight.
  • Have to is the most commonly used modal of obligation. It is useful for forming questions and negatives.

Be careful! The subject and verb must agree for he/she/it subjects AND the question form requires “Do/Does/Did”.

Modals of necessity - 2

Example Question Answer
I have to study tonight Do I have to study tonight? Yes, I do
She has to study tonight Does she have to study tonight? No, she doesn't

Remember: “have got to” and “have to” are modal verbs and require a simple verb to follow them.
The “to” is part of the modal; it is not an infinitive “to”.

There is only one way to express past time with these modal verbs: HAD TO.
(There is no past tense of must/have got to). Examples:

Present time Past time
We must show our passport at the airport. Last night, we had to show our passport at the airport.
I have got to pay my phone bill soon. I had to pay my phone bill this morning.
They have to go to the meeting today. They had to go to the meeting yesterday.


Pronunciation notes for American English:

  • The modal verb have got to is often contracted as: I've got to and sounds like “I've gotta...”
  • The modal verb have to often sounds like:
    “I hafta...” or “She hasta...” and “hasta” cannot be used in written English. They are only used in speaking.

Negative structures

Negative structures

There are a number of negatives structures in English ranging
from basic negative sentences to the more complicated neither ... nor
and not ... either.

Learn the most common negative structures:

  • Negative Verb Conjugation
  • Short Negative Answers
  • Negative Imperative
  • Never
  • 'Any' words
  • 'No' words
  • Negative + Any or 'No' word
  • Neither... nor
  • Double Negatives

    Go to the next pages!

Negative verb conjugation

The most common negative structure in English is the conjugation of the verb in the negative.
Verbs can be used in the negative by placing 'not' directly after the auxiliary verb in each conjugation.
The combination of the auxiliary verb + not is often contracted in English.
For example: do not = don't, will not = won't, has not = hasn't, etc.

Those contracted forms mainly are used in spoken English and in informal messages. In formal messages like in business and public authority communication they are not used. In spoken English, the not contracted form is used when one wants to emphasise the negation, as in Dutch 'écht niet, écht geen, absoluut niet, absoluut geen!'.
The word 'not' is strongly stressed in those cases: 'I will NOT consider regrading your assignment!'

The word order is: Subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb (+ objects and extra information)

Examples:

Informal, spoken language Emphatic spoken and formal language
She won't come to the party tomorrow. She will not come to the party tomorrow.
Tom hasn't finished the report. Tom has not finished the report.
We aren't studying Russian this semester. We are not studying Russian this semester.

Negative answers

If the answer to a question is 'no', you may omit the main verb.

Examples:

Question Answer Answer
  Informal, spoken language Emphatic spoken and formal language
Will she come to the party tomorrow? No, she won't. No, she will not.
Has Tom finished the report? No, he hasn't. No, he has not.
Do you study Russian this semester? No, we don't. No, we do not.

Negative imparitive

The imperative form is used to instruct / command others.
Use 'do not' + the verb for all comparative forms. No subject is required for the use of the imperative form.

The word order is: Do + not + verb (+ objects and extra information)

Examples:

Informal, spoken language Emphatic spoken and formal language
Don't begin without me. Do not begin without me.
Don't waste any time. Do not waste any time.
Don't touch the glass. Do not touch the glass.

Double negatives

Double negatives - the use of two 'no' words such as not and nowhere in one sentence -
are incorrect in standard English.
In many dialects and vernaculars, they are quite frequent.

Vernaculars (ways of speaking to indicate you belong to a particular group) are quite tricky.
It is relatively simple to learn to use 'wrong' double negatives.

Yet there are many other unwritten rules. If you make a mistake, you are 'out' immediately.
It's like your teach trying to speak like a 16 year old.
When modifying something use either a 'no' word, or 'any' as explained in the following sections.

Examples:

He doesn't like anything. or Angela hasn't visited anyone this month.
Angela hasn't visited anyone this month. or   Angela has visited no one this month.
She isn't going to travel anywhere. or She's going to travel nowhere.

Never

'Never' is used to express the idea that something is never done.
Note that 'never' is used with positive form of the verb but results in a negative meaning.
It's also important to remember that the present simple and past simple do not take an auxiliary verb in the positive form.
In other words, use the auxiliary verb for the present perfect, future, etc., but not with the present or past simple.

The word order is: Subject + (auxiliary verb) + never + verb + objects

Examples:

She never takes time off work.
Peter never walked to school when he was young.
Mary has never returned my calls.
Samantha will never learn to eat with chop sticks.

Any

'Any' and words such as 'anyone', 'anybody', 'anything', etc. are used in negative sentences and questions.
Subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb + any (+ objects and extra information)

Examples:

Informal, spoken language Emphatic spoken and formal language
He doesn't have any time. He does not have any time.
Mary isn't going to eat any dinner. Mary is not going to eat any dinner.
Peter hasn't done anything for the past three days. Peter has not done anything for the past three days.


When posing a question with an 'any' word, you expect the answer to be negative.

Examples:

Is there any tea left?  
Is there anybody out there? Probably not.
Is there any pupil who could answer this question?  

No words

There are a number of 'no' words such as 'nowhere', 'nothing', 'no one', which can be used in place of 'any' words.
Note the difference in structure between the two. 'Any' words take the negative verb structure, 'no' words take positive structures.

The word order is: Subject + (auxiliary verb) + main verb + no word (+ objects and extra information)

Examples:

I have nothing to say.
The boys invited no one to their party.
Timothy has gone nowhere this summer.

Any or No

Negative + Any or No

The following sections refer to specific similar structures using either the negative verb form with 'any' or a 'no' word. In each of these cases examples are given for both forms.The forms used have been explained above.

  • No more / not ... any more
She has thought of no more ideas. or She hasn't thought of any more ideas.
I have no more time today. or I don't have any more time today.

 

  • No one / not ... anyone
I'm meeting no one today. or I'm not meeting anyone today.
Alice has bought no one presents yet. or Alice hasn't bought anyone presents yet.

 

  • Nowhere / not ... anywhere
Shelly has gone nowhere this year. or Shelly hasn't gone anywhere this year.
Alex has travelled nowhere outside of the USA. or Alex hasn't travelled anywhere outside of the USA.

 

  • Nobody / not ... anybody (same meaning as no one / not ....anyone)
Susan saw nobody at work today. or Susan didn't see anyone at work today.
Tom bought nobody a present. or Tom didn't buy anyone a present.

 

  • Nothing / not ... anything
I've eaten nothing all day. or I haven't eaten anything all done.
Doug talks about nothing with his friends. or Doug doesn't talk about anything with his friends.

 

 

Neither or nor

Use the phrase 'neither ... nor' when expressing two negatives together.
Note that the verb is inverted after the use of 'nor'.

Examples:

I have neither the time nor have I had the desire to do my work.
She has neither the time nor the money to help her friends.
Alex has neither the means nor does he have the ability to find a new job.

Passive voice

Passive voice - 1

The form
The Passive Voice is formed by: Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle.
Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in the passive voice, note the following:

  • The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
  • The finite form of the verb is changed (a finite form of to be + Past Participle).
  • The subject of the active sentence is preceeded by the preposition 'by' (or is dropped).

Note the differences between Dutch and English:

Dutch   English  
o.t.t. Het boek wordt gelezen present simple The book is read
o.v.t. Het boek werd gelezen past simple The book was read
v.t.t. Het boek is gelezen present perfect The book has been read
v.v.t. Het boek was gelezen past perfect The book had been read

Passive voice - 2

The use
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action.
It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen.
I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in the passive voice is more polite than the active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

The examples

Tense   Subject Verbs (prepositional) Object
Simple Present Active: Rita writes a letter
  Passive: A letter is written by Rita
Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter
  Passive: A letter was written by Rita
Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter
  Passive: A letter has been written by Rita
Future Active: Rita will write a letter
  Passive: A letter will be written by Rita
Auxiliary verbs Active: Rita can write a letter
  Passive: A letter can be written by Rita

Passive voice - extra

Passive voice - extra

The examples

Tense Subject Verbs (prepositional) Object
Present Continuous Active: Rita is writing a letter
  Passive: A letter is being written by Rita
Past Continuous Active: Rita was writing a letter
  Passive: A letter was being written by Rita
Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter
  Passive: A letter had been written by Rita
Future Perfect Active: Rita will have written a letter
  Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita

Past perfect

Past perfect - 1

Forms of Past Perfect
The Past Perfect Tense is formed by using the Past Simple Tense of the verb 'to have' with the participle. 

  • For regular verbs, just add 'ed' to the infinitive.
  • For irregular verbs, use the participle form.
  Positive Negative Question
All pronouns I had worked You had not worked Had she worked?
  We had spoken He had not spoken Had they spoken?

 

Exceptions in spelling when adding 'ed' Example
after a final e only add d love - loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or / as final consonant after a vowel is doubled		 admit - admitted
travel - travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i hurry - hurried


Use of Past Perfect
Signal words

  • already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present)
  • If-Sentence type III (If I had talked,...)

The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past, or it expresses that someting did NOT happen in the past, and therefore something else did not, either.

 

Past perfect - 2

Actions taking place before a certain time in the past
Examples:

  • Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack.
  • I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.
  • I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
  • Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.
  • Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
  • She only understood the movie because she had read the book.
  • We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.
  • A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
    B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

Actions that did NOT happen in the past (Conditional Sentences Type III) 
Examples:

  • If I had seen him, I would have talked to him. (But I did not see him, so I did not talk to him either)
  • If I had owned a car, I would have driven to work. But I didn't own one, so I took the bus.
  • She would have traveled around the world if she had had more money.
    But she didn't have much money, so she never traveled.
  • I would have read more as a child if I hadn't watched so much TV.
    Unfortunately, I did watch a lot of TV, so I never read for entertainment.
  • Mary would have gotten the job and moved to Japan if she had studied Japanese in school instead of French.
  • If Jack had worked harder, he would have earned more money. Unfortunately, he was lazy and he didn't earn much.
  • A: What would you have done if you had won the lottery last week?
    B: I would have bought a house.

Present perfect

Present perfect - 1

Form of the Present perfect
The Present Perfect consists of the Present Tense of the verb 'to have' combined with the Participle form.

Forming the Participle form

  • For regular verbs, just add 'ed' to the infinitive.
  • For irregular verbs, use the participle form.
  Positive Negative Question
I/you/we/they I have worked I have not worked Have I worked?
  I have spoken I have not spoken Have I spoken?
he/she/it He has worked He has not worked Has he worked?
  He has spoken He has not spoken Has he spoken?

 

Exceptions in spelling when adding 'ed'

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example
after a final e only add d love - loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or / as final consonant after a vowel is doubled		 admit - admitted
travel - travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i hurry - hurried

 

 

Present perfect - 2

Uses of Present Perfect
The present perfect simple expresses an action that is still going on or that stopped recently, but has an influence on the present. It puts emphasis on the result.

  • puts emphasis on the result 
    Example: She has written five letters.
  • action that is still going on 
    Example: School has not started yet.
  • action that stopped recently 
    Example: He has cooked dinner.
  • finished action that has an influence on the present 
    Example: I have lost my key.
  • action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking
    Example: I have never been to Australia.

Signal Words of Present Perfect

  • already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now.

Specific time expressions?
You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc.

Unspecific time expressions?
We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Beware of Double Dutch!
Actions started in the past and continuing to the present time are expressed with the Present Perfect Tense in English. In Dutch, we use the Onvoltooid Tegenwoordige Tijd.

EXAMPLES

English Dutch
I have been living in the Netherlands for five years. Ik woon vijf jaar in Nederland.
How long have you been living in the Netherlands? Hoe lang woon je in Nederland?
Up to now, he has worked for a small company. Tot nu toe werkt hij bij een klein bedrijf.

Present perfect - extra

Extra: Present perfect - 1

It is useful to distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect Tense.

  • Unspecified Time Before Now
  • Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Use 1 Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now.
The exact time is not important. 

Examples:

  • I have seen that movie twenty times.
  • I think I have met him once before.
  • There have been many earthquakes in California.
  • People have travelled to the Moon.
  • People have not travelled to Mars.
  • Have you read the book yet?
  • Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

What is an unspecified time before?
The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners.
It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:

  • Topic 1 Experience
  • Topic 2 Change Over Time
  • Topic 3 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting
  • Topic 4 Multiple Actions at Different Times

Extra: Present perfect - 2

​Topic 1: Experience 
You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I have the experience of..."
You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience.
The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

  • I have been to France.
    This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in France.
    Maybe you have been there once, or several times.
  • I have been to France three times.
    You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
  • I have never been to France.
    This sentence means that you have not had the experience of going to France.

Topic 2: Change Over Time 
We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

  • You have grown since the last time I saw you.
  • The government has become more interested in arts education.
  • My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

Topic 3: An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting 
We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened.
Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

  • James has not finished his homework yet.
  • Susan has not mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
  • Bill has still not arrived.

Note that Dutch uses the Onvoltooid Tegenwoordige tijd in some of those cases:

  • James is nog niet klaar met zijn huiswerk/Susan beheerst het Japans niet,
    but:
  • Willem is nog niet aangekomen/ Het is nog niet opgehouden te regenen (of: Het regent nog steeds).

Topic 4: Multiple Actions at Different Times
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times.
Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

  • The army has attacked that city five times.
  • I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester.
  • She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she is sick.
  • We have had many major problems while working on this project.

Extra: Present perfect - 3

Use 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs (= verbs that need no -ing to express the Progressive. Examples are: to be, to need, to exist, to own, to want) we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now.
"For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

  • I have had a cold for two weeks.
  • She has been in England for six months.
  • Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Note that Dutch uses the Onvoltooid Tegenwoordige Tijd in those cases:
Ik ben al twee weken verkouden/Ze is al zes maanden in Nederland/Ze houdt van chocola van jongs af aan.

Present simple continuous

Present simple continuous - 1

Form
The Present Continuous (sometimes called the Present Progressive) Tense in English is really easy to make and is the same for all verbs.
We make it using the present simple of be + verb + -ing: 

Here is how we make the positive:

Positive Positive Short Form
I am sleeping I'm sleeping
you are sleeping you're sleeping
he is sleeping he's sleeping
she is sleeping she's sleeping
it is sleeping it's sleeping
we are sleeping we're sleeping
they are sleeping they're sleeping

 

We can make the negative by adding not:

Negative Negative Short Form
I am not sleeping I'm not sleeping
you are not playing you aren't playing
he is not reading he isn't reading
she is not working she isn't working
it is not raining it isn't raining
we are not cooking we aren't cooking
they are not listening they aren't listening

Present simple continuous - 2

Form
Questions are also really easy. Just like we made the question with be in the present simple, here we also put am, is, or are before the subject to make a yes/no-question. For wh-questions, just put the question word at the front.

Positive Positive Short Form
I am sleeping I'm sleeping
you are sleeping you're sleeping
he is sleeping he's sleeping
she is sleeping she's sleeping
it is sleeping it's sleeping
we are sleeping we're sleeping
they are sleeping they're sleeping

Present simple continuous - 3

Use
We use the Present Continuous Tense in the following cases:
1. Things that are happening at the moment of speaking. 

  • I'm working at the moment.
  • Please call back as we are eating dinner now.
  • Julie is sleeping.
  • You are studying the present continuous.

2. Temporary situations, when we feel something won't continue for a long time.

  • She's staying with her friend for a week.
  • I'm living in London for a few months.
  • John's working in a bar until he finds a job in his field.
  • I'm reading a really great book.

The present simple is used for permanent situations that we feel will continue for a long time.

3. Temporary or new habits (for normal habits that continue for a long time, we use the present simple).

  • He's eating a lot these days.
  • She's swimming every morning (she didn't use to do this).
  • You're drinking too many Fristi's.
  • They're working late every night.

4. Annoying habits, when we want to show that something happens too often and we don't like it.

  • You're always losing your keys!
  • She's constantly missing the train.
  • He's always sleeping in.
  • They're forever being late.

5. Definite future arrangements (with a future time word).
In this case we have already made a plan and we are pretty sure that the event will happen in the future.

  • I'm meeting my father tomorrow.
  • We're going to the beach at the weekend.
  • I'm leaving at three.
  • They're coming to the party at the weekend.

6. Finally we use this tense to talk about a situation which is slowly changing.

  • I'm getting better at playing the piano.
  • The weather is improving.

Simple past

Simple past - 1

Forms of Simple Past

  • For regular verbs, just add 'ed' to the infinitive.
  • For irregular verbs, use the past form.
  Positive Negative Question
All pronouns I worked You did not work Did he work?
  We spoke They did not speak Did she speak?

 

Exceptions in spelling when adding 'ed'

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example
after a final e only add d love - loved
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or / as final consonant after a vowel is doubled		 admit - admitted
travel - travelled
final y after a consonant becomes i hurry - hurried

 

The verbs 'to have' and 'to be' are highly irregular.

TO HAVE

Positive Negative Question
I had I did not have Did I have?
You had You did not have Did you have?
We had We did not have Did we have?
They had They did not have Did they have?
He had He did not have Did he have?
She had She did not have Did she have?
It had It did not have Did it have?

TO BE
The verb "be" is also irregular in the Simple Past.
Unlike other irregular verbs, there are two Simple Past forms: "was" and "were." 
It also has different question forms and negative forms.
Always remember NOT to use the auxiliary "did" with "to be".

Positive Negative Question
I was I was not Was I?
You were You were not Were you?
We were We were not Were we?
They were They were not Were they?
He was He was not Was he?
She was She was not Was she?
It was It was not Was it?

Simple past - 2

Uses of Simple Past
The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never or several times.
It can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of another action.

  • action in the past taking place once, never or several times
    Example: He visited his parents every weekend.
  • actions in the past taking place one after the other
    Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down.
  • action in the past taking place in the middle of another action
    Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.
  • if sentences type II (If I talked, ...)
    Example: If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you.

Beware of Double Dutch!
One specific use of the Simple Past's use deserves your attention: Speakers of English use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past.
Dutch uses the Tegenwoordig Voltooide Tijd in those cases.

EXAMPLES

English Dutch
I saw a movie yesterday. Ik heb gisteren een film bekeken.
I didn't see a play yesterday. Ik heb gisteren geen theatervoorstelling bezocht.
Last year, I travelled to Japan. Vorig jaar ben ik naar Japan gereisd.
Last year, I didn't travel to Korea. Vorig jaar ben ik niet naar Korea gereisd.
Did you have dinner last night? Heb je gisteren gedineerd?
She washed her car last week. Ze heeft haar auto vorige week gewassen.


Signal Words of Simple Past

  • yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday
  • If-sentence type II (If I talked, ...)

Superlatives of adjectives

Superlatives of adjectives - 1

In the superlative you talk about one thing only and how it is the best, worst, etc.
You do not compare two things. The following guidelines apply to the superlative: 

Adjectives with one syllable:
1-syllable adjectives: add -est to the adjective (plus the)

My sister is the tallest in our family.
Yesterday was the coldest day of the year so far.

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually doubled in the superlative.
big - biggest, fat - fattest, hot - hottest

Adjectives of two syllables ending in -y:
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -iest (plus the)

The richest people are not always the happiest.
Which do you think is the easiest language to learn?
She's the luckiest person I know.

Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs.
2-syllable adverbs ending in -y form their superlative with the words the most.

Of all the people I know my father drives the most quickly (quickliest).

Superlatives of adjectives - 2

Other adjectives with two syllables:
Other 2-syllable adjectives: use the most with the unchanged adjective

The most boring thing about ESL class is doing grammar exercises.
My sister is the most careful person I know.

Exceptions
The superlative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -est.

  • simple - simplest
  • clever - cleverest
  • narrow - narrowest

To be sure which comparative method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Adjectives of three syllables or more:
Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use the most with the unchanged adjective

Some people think that Russian is the most difficult language.
Albert Einstein was the most intelligent person in history.
My most enjoyable class is English.

Irregular forms
Following are two common irregular comparative/superlative forms:

good - better - the best
bad - worse - the worst

The first conditional

The first conditional - 1

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the main clause:

if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future.
Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

  • If it rains, I won't go to the park.
  • If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
  • If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
  • She'll be late if the train is delayed.
  • She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
  • If I see her, I'll tell her.

The first conditional - 2

First vs. Zero Conditional
The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional describes what happens in general.

For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned.
(here I'm talking about every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural consequence of the sitting)
But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned.
(here I'm talking about what will happen today, another day might be different)

First vs. Second Conditional
The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future, whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen.
It's subjective; it depends on my point of view.

For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam.
(I think it's possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)
But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam.
(I think that she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass).

The second conditional

The second conditional - 1

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive in the main clause:

if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.

  • If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
  • If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello. ( It won't happen)
  • She would travel all over the world if she were rich. (But she isn't)
  • She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

The second conditional - 2

Secondly, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear?
Have a look at the examples:

  • If I had his number, I would call him.
    (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me to call him)
  • If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

How is this different from the first conditional?
This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more unlikely.

For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool.
(I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)
But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
(It's much more likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes.

The third conditional

The third conditional

We form the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past participle in the main clause:

if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.

  • If she had studied, she would have passed the exam. (but, really we know she didn't study and so she didn't pass)
  • If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick. (but I did eat a lot, and so I did feel sick)
  • If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed.
  • She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier. (but she did not go to bed earlier and she was tired)
  • She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university. (but she did not go to university and she did not become a teacher)

The zero conditional

The zero conditional - 1

We can form a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):

if + present simple, ... present simple 

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils.
It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the main clause.

The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.

For example:
If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.
(It is always true, there can't be a different result sometimes, not at sea level)
If I eat peanuts, I am sick.
(This is true only for me, maybe, not for everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)

The zero conditional - 2

Here are some more examples:

  • If people eat too much, they get fat.
  • If you touch a fire, you get burned.
  • People die if they don't eat.
  • You get water if you mix hydrogen and oxygen.
  • Snakes bite if they are scared.
  • If babies are hungry, they cry.