Just now, you practised recognising sources and the different types of sources. From here on, this course will be about creating citations.
Necessary elements
When referencing a book in a bibliography, it is, of course, logical that the following elements must be recorded in any case:
- the name(s) of the author(s)
- the title and perhaps the subtitle
- the date of publication
In addition, it is convention to also record the publisher, and the year and place of publication. If the work has been translated, the translator also deserves mention, while if the volume forms part of a series, the series title should also be recorded.
You may consider other information noteworthy as well, such as where the author lives, but such information does not belong in a bibliography. Everything that does belong in it is dictated by bibliographical convention.
The information that should be stated includes
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in the case of a
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always, among other things
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journal article
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journal title, volume/year of publication, page numbers
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digital journal article
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DOI (digital object identifier)
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book chapter
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book authors or editors, page numbers
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newspaper article
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date
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radio programme
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radio station and date of transmission
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film
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director
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unpublished letter
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addressee
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newly discovered print
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place/site of discovery, technique
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author's typescript
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place/site of discovery
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Not only are the elements that make up how a particular type of source should be cited dictated by rules and convention, so are the form, order and punctuation used, according to the citation (i.e. bibliographical) style in question. It is therefore not up to you which elements you set in boldface or underline, or whether you state the first name or only the initials of an author. Reference style books dictate how this is done.
A reference style is often specific to a certain academic discipline or academic journal. Among the styles often encountered are APA, Harvard, Chicago and MLA. If necessary, find out from your degree programme department whether a specific style is required when writing papers or theses.
Applying a certain style allows you to cite sources correctly and consistently.
However, the exact order and appearance of citation elements in a bibliography are not the only things dictated by the style. The way in which you cite in your text when using a
- literal quotation
- summary
- paraphrase
or any other manner of referring to a source are also dictated by the style.
Some require you to place references in brackets at the end of a sentence, listing author(s) and page number(s), or author(s), year of publication and page number(s). Citation styles requiring this include APA and Harvard. If you like, you can also refer to multiple sources with regard to a single sentence. However, remember that the closing bracket should precede the sentence's full stop or a comma.
Other styles require you to create a footnote that gives the author(s), year of publication and page number(s). The footnotes appear in numerical order at the bottom of the page in question. This is the case, for instance, in the Chicago style (16th edition).
Some styles want you to create an endnote giving the source details and the exact part of the source being cited. The numbered footnotes are located at the very end of the text.
Should you refer to the same source on a number of occasions, you will repeatedly need to cite it between brackets or in a footnote or endnote for each reference. If you refer to another page in the same source as in the previous citation, some style will allow you to use ‘ibidem’, which is abbreviated as ‘ibid.’, followed by the page number being referred to.
The complete reference to a source you have cited (between brackets or in a footnote or endnote) should be included in the reference list (also known as bibliography or cited works), which will generally speaking be in alphabetical order of the authors’ names.
Each source only has to be mentioned once in a bibliography, see below:
References
Bender Sebring, Allensworth, Bryk, Easton & Luppescu (2006). The essential supports for school improvement. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
Hargreaves & Fullan (2012). Professional capital. Transforming teaching in every school. Toronto: teachers College Press.
Kambel, E. (2013). Sirius Peer review Norway, 14 and 15 November 2013. Barcelona: Sirius.
Lomos, C., Hofman, R. & Bosker, R. J. (2011). Professional community and student achievement –a meta-‐analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement,22(2), 121-‐148.
Muijs, S. Harris, A. Chapman, C., Stoll, L. & Russ, J. (2004). Improving schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas – A review of research evidence. School effectiveness and school improvement: An international Journal of research, policy and practice, 15(2), 149-‐175.
Payne, C.M. (2008). So much reform, so little change. The persistence of failure in urban schools. Cambridge: Harvard Education Press.
Severiens, S. & Tudjman, T. (2013). Professional capital in schools as regards education for migrant children. An exploration of policies in the Sirius network countries. Barcelona: Kit-book.
Severiens, S., Wolff, R. & Herpen, S. van (2014). Teaching for diversity. European Journal of Teacher Education.
doi 10.1080/02619768.2013.845166.
Tudjman, T. (2012). Sirius Peer review Zagreb, 10 and 11 October 2012. Barcelona: Sirius.
Tudjman, T. (2013a). Equal educational opportunities policy in educational practice. Creating optimal learning and development chances for pupils with a migrant background in Antwerp 22 and 23 January 2013. A peer review report. Barcelona: Sirius.
Tudjman, T. (2013b) Policy makers meeting Rotterdam, 11th of December 2012. Policies in the Sirius countries on professional capacity building with a focus on improving the educational position of migrant children. Barcelona: Sirius.
